Outline of the April 13th Lecture / E. Eldem

"Latecomers: Bismarck and Garibaldi"

Important points to remember:

— The power of nationalism as the dominant ideology for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries;
— The origins of ‘political’ or ‘French’ nationalism in the French Revolution: an ideology based on the concept of citizenship and participation in the res publica, and of a voluntarist perception of becoming a member of the nation through civic rights and duties;
— The alternative form of nationalism defined as ‘German’ or ‘cultural’ nationalism, whereby the nation is defined in terms of ‘objective,’ cultural, or historical criteria: language, race, ethnic origin, common history, culture, blood, lineage…
— The realization that none of these two models exist in ‘pure’ form, a typical example being Turkish nationalism, which is heavily inspired by the French tradition (Ne mutlu Türküm diyene…), but eventually shows a greater propensity to resort to ‘German’ criteria of definition;
— Nationalism in its ‘French’ version, inspired by the French Revolution, tends to be a ‘progressive’ force until the mid-nineteenth century, meaning that it is mostly associated with liberal ideology, as represented mainly by the bourgeoisie and the lower middle classes.
— Importance of Rousseau and Romanticism in the formation of nationalist ideology. The Enlightenment thinkers were more concerned with the individual; Rousseau brings forth the notion of the sovereign will, to which individual interest can be sacrificed.
— 1848 (the Springtime of Peoples) a major breaking point in the ideological outlook of Europe. Until then most revolutions (1789, 1830) are led by the bourgeoisie; however, in 1848 a split occurs within the revolutionary elites, as the bourgeoisie opts for the preservation of the status quo, while the radicals and the rising working class continue to oppose the system.
— This shift in alliances is also felt at an ideological level: nationalism, until then the ideology of change, is gradually co-opted by the state itself and becomes an element of conservative and even repressive policy.
— A typical example is the way in which Napoleon III builds his political power on the idea of material progress and state-sponsored nationalism, transforming the Republic (1848) into an Empire (1852) through a combination of populism and political repression.
— German nationalism as a political project will develop only in the second half of the century. Initially it is mostly limited to intellectual and romantic constructs (Fichte, Hegel…) based on language, folklore, art, and culture.
— There are many obstacles to the formation of a German state, most notably a fragmented political landscape with two powers competing for leadership: Austria and Prussia.
— Bismarck will be the first to move from abstraction to reality by promoting Prussia as the leader of a future German nation. To do so, he first eliminates Austria from the race, creating a conflict in which Austria is defeated (1866), then, leading a victorious campaign against France (1870).
— The German Reich (Empire) is thus constituted in 1871 and comprises all German states, except Austria. It soon becomes one of the Great Powers of the time, engaging in the race for colonies and contributing to the rising tension that would eventually lead to World War I.
— Italian unification (Risorgimento) followed a somewhat similar path, starting with romantic revolutionism, best illustrated by the role played by the poet Giuseppe Mazzini, and underground revolutionary movements (the Carbonari). After 1848, the movement gains momentum, especially under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, who was able to ‘conquer’ most of Italy. However, Garibaldi ends up entrusting the final mission of unification to Vittorio Emanuele, King of Piedmont and Sardinia, who thus becomes the first king of a unified Italy in 1861.