Final Results

Students may see their final exam papers at the Teaching Assistants’ office between 19 June Tuesday and 22 June Friday.

Name Surname Final Grade (over 45) Overall Catalogue Grade
CİHAD ACAR 19 DC
EMRE ACIKARAOĞLU 27 DC
SELÇUK AÇIKALIN 20 DD
ALİ AÇIKGÖZ 23 CC
NÜKHET AGAR 30 CC
KORAY AĞDEMİR NP
ASLI NİLGÜN AKALIN 18 CC
MURAT ORKUN AKAN 19 DD
UMUR AKANSEL 12 DD
MERVE AKDEMİR 22 CC
SEDA AKDEMİR 24 DC
GURBET AKDOĞAN 23 DC
OĞUZ AKKAYA 24 CC
ÖZGE AKKAYA 29 CC
GİZEM AKSU 26 CC
AYŞE AKTAŞ 27 CC
MEHMET İLKERAKTAŞ 15 DD
HAKAN AKÜZÜM 18 DC
GÜLDEN AKYILDIZ NP
KANBER AKYÖN 22 DC
DENİZ AKYURT 36 BA
FEYZİ ALAETTİNOĞLU 16 DD
İNAN ALAKUŞ 8 F
CUMHUR EGE ALİKADIOĞLU 0 F
ZARİFA ALİKPEROVA 38 CB
ÖZLEM ALKAP 22 DC
SEVİLAY ALKILIÇ 21 DC
LEVENT ALLOVİ 38 BB
KEREM ALPASLAN 27 CC
ZEYNEP ALPAY NP
BURCU ALSAN 17 F
SAİD ALTINIŞIK 23 DC
MUHAMMET ALTINKAYA NP
BİRCE ALTIOK 31 BA
MAKBULE EDA ANLAMLIER 34 CC
BATUHAN APAYDIN NP
İPEK APAYDIN 24 CC
NEDA ARAFAT NP
TÜLİN ARAZ NP
SERAP ARIK 19 DC
GÜLFEM ARSLAN NP
HAYRİ ALPER ARSLAN 26 CC
MEHMET MİRAÇARSLAN NP
SERDAR ARSLAN 25 DC
SUZAN ARSLAN 24 DC
ASLI ASAR 27 CC
PELİN ASFUROĞLU 26 CC
SEDAT ASLAN 25 DC
PELİN AŞÇI 28 CC
ÖKKEŞ ATAHAN 5 F
GÜLİZ ATSIZ 20 DC
KÜBRA AVCI 13 DD
SANEM SU AVCI 41 BA
CİHAN AYAZ 24 CC
HAZAN AYDIN 23 DD
KIVANÇ AYDIN NP
MERVE AYDIN NP
HÜLYA AYHAN 22 DC
EMREN AYTEKİN 15 DD
ALİ AYKUT AYYILDIZ 24 DD
EDA BAHAR 30 CB
AHMET CAN BAL NP
ÇİĞDEM DAMLABALABAN 20 DD
CANAN BALKAN 27 DC
ORHAN BALTA 25 CC
SONAY BAN 26 DC
ŞEBNEM BARAN 45 AA
ÖZLEM BARSGAN 33 CC
FATİH BAŞ 23 DC
GÜRKAN BAŞDOĞAN 17 DD
İLKER BAŞIBÜYÜK 38 BB
AYŞENUR BAŞTEKİN 22 DC
DURMUŞ ALİ BATTAL 19 DD
GÖZDE BAYCUR 31 CC
İSMAİL BAYGIN 13 F
ŞEYDA BAYINDIR 2 F
SİNAN BAYKUT 6 F
AYÇA BAYRAK 23 CC
ORKAN BAYRAM 9 DD
HASAN BELBER NP
GAMZE PELİN BERBEROĞLU 17 DD
CANAN BERKEM 29 CC
SİNAN BEYAZBULUT NP
ANDAÇ BOLLUK 41 AA
ÇAĞRI BOYMUL 32 CB
FATİH BOZKURT 26 DC
MUHARREM BOZTEPE 29 CC
HAKAN BÖLÜKBAŞIOĞLU 27 DD
AYLA BULUT 31 DC
HAYRİ EMRE BÜYÜKABALI NP
IŞIL BÜYÜKKAL 25 DC
GAMZE CAN 25 DC
SAFA CANALP NP
MEHMET SÜLEYMAN CANSOY 35 CB
DERYA CANTUTAN 29 CC
HAVVA CESUR 29 DC
DİLEKNUR CEYLAN 21 DC
HALİME CİNBAT 3 F
AHMET VEYSİ COŞKUN 14 F
MERVE COŞKUN 38 BB
AYTEKİN DURMUŞ ÇABUK 33 BB
AYŞE ÇAĞLAYAN 36 BA
EMİR ÇAKAR 26 DC
AYLİN ÇAKI 9 F
KEMAL FIRAT ÇAKKALKURT NP
EZGİ ÇAKMAK 25 DC
GÜNSELİ ÇAKMAKCI 23 DC
OSMAN YUSUF ÇALIŞKAN 13 DD
SERDAR ÇALIŞKAN 36 CB
EMİNE ÇAPAR NP
NAZLI ÇAPAR 31 CC
ELİF ÇAR 36 CC
YELİZ ÇAVUŞ 24 DC
HASAN NURHAN ÇELİK NP
MEHMET OZAN ÇELİK NP
ERMAN ÇETE 19 DC
BERİL ÇETİN 32 CB
TAYFUN SERHAN ÇETİNKAYA 15 F
MERAL ÇİZMECİ 32 CB
MURAT NUR ÇOLAKOĞLU 34 BA
SERCAN DABANLIOĞLU 16 F
ÖZGÜN ESİN DAL 18 DD
HÜSNÜ ÇAĞRI DALGIÇ 41 BA
MEYMUNE NUR DAVUTOĞLU 37 CB
SAFİYE DAYAN 28 DC
ÖZNUR DEDELER 14 F
KAREN DELEON NP
RAMAZAN CEMİL DEPÇE 33 CB
EBRU DİKMAN 15 F
MERAL EBRU DİKMEN 27 CC
MURAT DİKMEN NP
UĞUR DİNÇ 35 CB
ÖZCAN DİNLER 25 DC
AYDAN DOĞAN 34 CB
ORKUN DOĞAN 27 DC
MELİS DURAN 24 DC
YUNUS DURMAZKESER NP
BİLAL DURUKAN NP
SERDAR DURUPINAR 10 F
BAŞAK DÜNDAR 7 F
GÜLŞAH EFE 22 DC
ENGİN EFECİK 39 AA
YUSUF ONUR EKER 22 DD
NURDAN EMANET 20 DD
KORAY ERÇİN 10 F
UMUTCAN ERDİNÇ 38 BA
EGECAN ERDOĞAN 20 DD
ŞULE ERDOĞAN 19 DD
ULVİ GÜN ERDOĞDU NP
ZEHRA ERDOĞDU 23 DD
SERKAN EREBAK 16 DD
GÖKHAN ERMİŞ 20 DC
SEVİM EROL 21 DD
FULYA YÜKSEL ERSOY 29 CB
YUSUF ERSOY NP
IRMAK ERTÖR 31 BB
PINAR ERTÖR 39 AA
EGE ESEN NP
MERVE ESEN 33 CC
MUSTAFA ENES ESEN 34 CC
HALE EVRANSEL 30 CC
EYLÜL EYGİ 28 CC
MUHAMMED EMİN GENÇ NP
İSMAİL GÖKCE 17 F
GÖRKEM GÖMEÇ 19 DD
GÜNNUR ASLIHAN GÖNÇ 16 DD
HAYRİYE GÖNENLİ 31 CB
REFİK ÖZGÜR GÜÇLÜ 26 DC
SELİM EMRE GÜLERYÜZ 33 BB
TUTKU GÜLKAYA 23 CC
EGEMEN GÜLKILIK 20 DD
FATMA GÜLLÜOĞLU 23 DC
BİLAL GÜLTEKİN 28 DC
SEMA GÜN 14 DC
HANDE GÜNDOĞAN 17 DD
AHMET GÜNDOĞDU 18 DD
ÖZGE GÜNDOĞDU 37 BB
ZEYNEL CAN GÜNDOĞDU NP
SONA GÜNDÜZHEV 20 DD
ARMAĞAN GÜNER 14 DD
KADİR GÜRAY GÜNER 28 CC
BUKET GÜNEY 15 DC
ONURAY GÜNEY 21 DC
İREM GÜNHAN NP
İBRAHİM HAKKI GÜNTAY 22 CC
GÖZDE GÜRAN 37 BB
İSMAİL SEMİH GÜRATAN 31 BB
M. SELENGA GÜRMEN 39 BA
GÖZDE GÜZÜNLER 18 DC
KUTLU KAAN HALİLOĞLU 23 DD
ONUR CÜNEYT HALİLOĞLU 23 DC
ZEYNEP İPEK HIZLIKAN 29 CC
CEREN HİÇ 27 CC
SEVERİN HÖRMANN 29 CC
NİL İPEK HÜLAGÜ 12 DD
NİLAY IĞDIR 28 DD
ATALAY IŞIK 24 CC
FERHAT IŞIK 27 CC
EKREM ALPEREN İLBAŞ 23 DD
İDİL İLHANLI 32 BB
HALİL İNCE 17 F
MURAT İSTAY NP
GAZİ KABAŞ 26 DC
ASLI KADİFECİ 8 F
ALİ CAN KAHYA 22 DD
ZİLAN KAKİ 24 F
BESTE KALENDER 37 BB
SERKAN KANCA 18 F
FATMA SENEM KARA 20 F
AZİZE KARAALİOĞLU 22 DC
BERNES KARAÇAY 11 DD
ABDULKADİR KARAGÖZ 21 DC
YALÇIN KARAGÖZ 24 DD
HANDAN KARAKAŞ 31 CB
YAĞMUR KARAKAYA 43 BA
SİBEL KARAMARAŞ 29 CB
ESEN KARAN 25 CC
SELİM KARLITEKİN 37 BA
SİNAN KARŞIYAKA 21 DD
ÇINAR KAYA 21 DC
EMİNE KAYA 32 CC
HİKMET KAYA 29 DC
ILGIN KAYA 16 DD
MUSTAFA KAYA 29 CC
PINAR KAYA 20 DD
SEMRA KAYA 19 DD
KIVANÇ KAYADENİZ 4 F
DENİZ KESER 15 F
HATİCE EMRAH KESİMLER 18 F
SENA KILIÇ 31 CB
BURÇAK KILIÇOĞLU 28 CC
BERKE KIRIKKANAT 27 CC
RABİA İMRA KIRLI 34 BB
HEDİYE KIZIL 36 BB
NUR KIZILTAN 36 BB
EMİNE SENA KİŞİ 33 CB
TUĞBA KOCAEFE 25 DC
FATİH KOÇ 2 F
NURCAN KOÇ 9 F
AYŞE KOÇAK 27 CC
ELİF KORTAN 22 DC
FATMA KÖMÜRCÜ 31 CC
FERHAT KÖSE 26 DD
HAKAN KÖSE 24 DC
KÜBRA KÖSE 23 DD
EBRU GİZEM KÖSEOĞLU 21 DC
GÖZDE KUL 26 CC
BAHADIR KULA NP
ŞULE KULU 23 DC
ALİ KURT 23 DD
HÜSEYİN KURT 19 DD
ZEHRA KURT 39 BA
MEHMET KURTOĞLU 21 DC
ALİ KUTLUCA 10 F
CAN KUYUMCUOĞLU 29 CC
BARAN KÜÇÜK 17 F
IŞILAY MERİÇ KÜÇÜK 28 DC
GÜLPER KÜÇÜKKÖMÜRCÜ 34 BA
DORUK KÜÇÜKSARAÇ 34 CB
MEHMET ZEKİ KÜPELİ 37 CC
DUYGU LALOĞLU 27 CC
KEREM LAMA NP
JOSEPH LEE 26 CC
ERSİN MADEN 14 F
ESRA MADEN 30 DC
SEVNUR MALİK 31 CC
BONDO MESKHI 29 DC
ALPER METE 11 F
ATAKAN METE 34 BA
GÜL ECE MİNVER 27 DC
AVNİ BERK NALÇACIOĞLU 26 DD
NESLİHAN NAZLIGÜL 34 CB
PELİN NTOGANTZALI 16 F
HACER OCAK 6 F
MELTEM ODABAŞ 24 DC
MEHMET SİNAN OĞAN NP
ELİF OĞUZ 16 F
MERVE OĞUZHAN 25 CC
GÖZDE OKÇU 12 F
ŞÜKRAN OKUR 25 DC
ÜLKER MERVE ONAY 35 CB
ÖZGE ONGUN 33 CB
CANKUT ORAKÇAL 33 BB
ZEHRA ORMAN 22 CC
SİNAN ORUÇ 31 CC
ÖMER OY 18 DD
TUĞBA ÖCEK NP
HALUK ÖKSÜZGÖNÜL 27 CC
CEMAL ÖMEROĞLU NP
CEM ÖNDER 22 DC
SEZİN ÖNER 35 BB
YELİZ ÖZ 27 CC
DAMLA ÖZAKAY 23 CC
MUSTAFA SELÇUK ÖZAYDIN 18 F
TANER ÖZBEK 4 F
SÜLEYMAN KUTALMIŞ ÖZCAN 21 DD
MELİSA ÖZÇAKIR NP
MERİÇ ÖZÇELİK 27 CC
BERK ÖZDEMİR 23 DC
DİDEM DERYA ÖZDEMİR 38 CB
HATİCE ÖZDEMİR 19 DD
ÖZGE ÖZDEMİR 23 CC
CAN ÖZDEN 25 CB
ŞİRVAN ÖZER 28 CC
TUNÇ KAYA ÖZKAN 26 CC
DİLARA ÖZKAYALAR 20 DD
DERYA ÖZKAYNAK 19 DD
SEYFULLAH HALİD ÖZKURT NP
PINAR ÖZMEN 28 CC
GONCA ÖZSARAN 27 CC
AYŞEGÜL ÖZSOY 25 CC
DEVLET DUYGU ÖZSOY 9 F
ŞEYDA ÖZSOY NP
BUKET ÖZTEKİN 25 CC
OĞUZ ÖZTUNALI 41 BB
BEHİRE SEVİNÇ ÖZTÜRK 16 DD
HATİCE SÜMEYRA ÖZTÜRK 17 DD
MUSTAFA ALPER ÖZTÜRK 29 DD
ÖZGÜR ÖZTÜRK 3 F
MÜGE ÖZVAROL 3 F
YASEMİN FATMA ÖZYİĞİT NP
EMRE ÖZYURT NP
ŞENİZ PAMUK NP
ŞAHİKA PAŞOLAR 27 CC
ESRA PEHLEVAN 32 DC
BETÜL PEKKANLI NP
ELİF PEKMEZCİOĞLU 22 DD
GÖKÇE PİROĞLU 24 CC
ABDULLAH BURAK POLAT 26 DC
TÜLİN POLAZ NP
HANDE REÇBER (ÇAKIR) 18 F
ZEYNEP REKKALI 18 DD
AYŞEGÜL RONABAR 28 CC
AHU SAHA NP
ATIL SAMANCIOĞLU 27 DC
DERYA SANCAKLI 32 BA
DİLEK SANDIK 31 CB
TUBA SARDAR 35 CB
BETÜL SATIK 27 DD
EDA SAYALI 25 DC
KUTADGU FIRAT SAYIN 30 CC
ORÇUN SELÇUK 34 CB
HARUN SERT NP
SEYİT ARDA SERT 18 F
EMREHAN SEYHAN 13 DD
BİLİNÇ SEZGİN 31 DC
ÜMİT SİPAHİOĞLU 13 DD
İREM SOMER 21 DC
MUSTAFA SEZER SOYSAL 14 F
ÖZGE SOYUER 15 DD
PINAR SÖZER 24 DC
SEMA SÖZER 21 DD
MUHAMMET FARUK SUBAŞI 9 F
ÖVGÜ SÜZEN 23 CC
SERCAN ŞAFAK NP
ELVAN ŞAHİN 33 CB
MURAT ŞAHİN 32 CC
SELAHADDİN ŞAHİN 25 CC
ECE ŞAKARER 22 DC
İREM ŞANCI 22 DD
IŞIN ŞANLI 33 CC
EMİNE ŞEKER 21 DD
ESMA GÜL ŞENER 24 DD
CEREN ŞENGÜL 26 DC
EVREN ŞENGÜL 11 F
NİL ŞENVER 42 AA
SU ŞİMŞEK 11 DD
MUHAMMED TAHA ŞİRİN NP
ÖZKAN ŞİRİN 21 DC
NEJAT ŞİŞMANOĞLU NP
TUĞÇE TABAK 23 CC
UĞUR TAHMAZ 22 DD
NERGİZ TANHAN 32 CB
ÖZGE TANRINIAN 27 CC
BİLAL TANYERİ NP
FIRAT TARAKCI 22 CC
AHMET TAŞCI NP
ÖZGE TAŞDEMİR NP
MEHMET FATİH TATARİ 34 BB
GÖZDE TEKAY NP
HAKAN TEKELİ 26 CC
ÇİĞDEM TEKŞEN 32 CC
MERVE TETEY 27 DC
DİLAN TETİK 22 DC
GÖKHAN TOK 29 DC
HAKAN TOPÇU 13 DD
NİHAN TOPRAKKIRAN 31 CC
PERİHAN SENA TORAMAN 21 DD
TREYSİ TOVİM 22 DC
BILIAL TSILIGKIR NP
YASEMİN BERRAK TUNA 35 CC
CİHAN TUNCER 21 CC
SAMET TUNCER 14 DD
MERVE TUNCİ 23 DC
HAKAN TUNÇ 18 DD
MEHMET NECİP TUNÇ NP
MİNE TÜFEKÇİ 23 DD
MÜGE TÜFEKÇİ 16 F
KANER ATAKAN TÜRKER 22 DC
GÜLSUN TÜRKMENOĞULLARI 26 CC
HANİFE UĞUR 22 DC
NURAY UĞUR 16 DD
SEÇKİN ULUSKAN 23 DC
FATMA CANSU USAK 20 DD
ALP CAN UTKU 18 DD
MERVE UVUT 17 F
DİDEM UYGUN 36 CB
DUYGU UYGUN NP
SELEHATTİN UYSAL 24 F
AHMET UZUN 37 BA
MERVE UZUN 10 F
ONUR UZUN 24 DD
FİLİZ UZUNYAYLA NP
CEREN ÜLKÜ NP
YAVUZ ÜNAL 30 CC
BERK VARDAR 15 DD
FATMA CANSU VAROL NP
GİZEM VURAL 22 DD
AMY JOY WAKITSCH 23 DC
MELTEM YABACI 16 DD
SAMET YALÇIN 22 DC
YALÇIN YALINKILIÇ 26 CC
MÜGE YAMANYILMAZ 22 DC
ŞEBNEM YAPARELLER NP
ONUR YARDIMCI NP
GÜNSELİ YARKIN 22 DC
FARUK YAŞAR NP
RUŞEN YAŞAR 24 DC
ZEYNEP YAŞAR NP
MELİKE YAVUZ 32 CB
MESUT MALİK YAVUZ 32 CB
ÇAĞRI YAZI 33 BB
KÜBRA YENİ 31 CB
SERAP YILDIRIM 14 F
ELİF YILDIZ NP
GÖKHAN YILDIZ 27 CC
TEVHİD YILDIZ NP
BURAK YILMAZ NP
CEMİLE NAZ YILMAZ 18 F
MELİKE YILMAZ NP
MERVE YILMAZ 33 CB
YASEMİN YILMAZ NP
HALİL İBRAHİM YÖNLÜER NP
TUĞBA YUMAKLI 27 CB
MERVE YUMUŞAK 27 DC
AYTAÇ YURDAKURBAN 23 DD
ELİF YURTOĞLU 23 DD
SALİM YÜKSEKOL 21 DC
EKREM YÜKSEL 25 CC
SEVDE ZEYNEP YÜZER 15 DD
DERYA NEVRUZ ZENGİN NP
ECE ZERMAN 19 DC
ŞEHİTNUR ZÜLFİKAR 28 CC

Final Exam Places / June 2, 15:00

TB 310 ACAR-BELBER

TB 260 BERBEROĞLU-ÇAPAR

TB 240 ÇAR-DİKMEN

M 1100 DİNÇ-HALİLOĞLU

PARK 1 HIZLIKAN-ONAY

GYM ONGUN- TANHAN

PARK 2 TANRINIAN-ZÜLFİKAR

Outline of the April 25th Lecture / E. Eldem

"The Triumphant Bourgeoisie"

Important points to remember:

— The bourgeoisie is certainly triumphant in the nineteenth century, and probably still is to this day.
— The term has enormously changed throughout time, from town dweller (burgher) in the Middle Ages to a socio-economic class in the nineteenth century.
— It is worth noting that it has generally come with a negative connotation: not being noble under the ancient régime; taking part in the economic exploitation of the working class and representing political conservatism in modern times.
— Hardly presented as an ideal: in ancient régime France, the bourgeois are aspiring for noble status, rather than for bourgeois power (Molière’s Le bourgeois gentilhomme (The Bourgeois Gentleman).
— The French Revolution finally empowers them, in the name of the people. It is the beginning of a new era that will be marked by the rise of bourgeois power as an opposition to aristocratic elites.
— The revolutionary role played by the bourgeoisie continues well into the 1830s, with this group leading most of the popular movements against the establishment.
— Gradually, however, as they acquire more power and become the establishment, the bourgeois will start moving on the conservative side and become defenders of the status quo.
— Their power increases even more thanks to the combined effects of the Industrial Revolution in which they play a predominant role and of the rise of the ‘new’ professions, in education, law, medicine, engineering…
— The growing power of the bourgeoisie brings with it the rise of a new culture, based on moral values, taste, beliefs, behavior directly influenced by the bourgeoisie. Ideologically speaking, the bourgeoisie in the nineteenth century is generally identified with political conservatism, the defense of capitalist policies, and economic liberalism.
— Much of bourgeois culture is inspired from an old desire to emulate (imitate) the nobility in terms of consumption and display of wealth, often resulting in a showiness that can develop into outright kitsch.
— At the same time, however, it wishes to adopt moral values often supposed to be absent from the nobility. Family values, intimacy, moral righteousness, religious fervor are typical examples of such concerns.
— Interestingly, bourgeois power in the nineteenth century is such that the bourgeois cultural and moral model will have to be taken up by the other classes, from the very top (Queen Victoria) to the very bottom (aspiring working class).
— Bourgeois culture also freezes gender roles by assigning public/active domains to men and domestic/passive concerns to women, much in the way they will remain to this day.
— The bourgeoisie is also keen on exporting and imposing its values on other classes, most notably the lower classes. The same is true of its treatment of marginal groups (the poor, the mentally ill, the criminal), against whom repressive and punitive measures will be undertaken (hardworking and subdued subalterns, respectful and deserving poor, repenting and reformed criminals…)
— Most of these traits appear in the cultural and educational artifacts of the time. Photography, a new technology, makes it possible to capture the dignity, discipline, austerity, affluence, or love within the family, sometimes even including deceased family members…
— Children’s books reproduce these values by illustrating stories and situations that serve as an example to the young readers who are exposed to this material.

Outline of the April 20th Lecture / E. Eldem

"Society Transformed: Peasants, Workers, Consumers, and Capitalists"

Important points to remember:

— The nineteenth century introduces a number of radical changes as a consequence of the French Revolution and the ongoing Industrial Revolution.
— This is the end of the ancient régime, in political, social, and economic terms, and the beginning of a new era that prefigures modernity as we know it.
— Ancien régime society is overwhelmingly agrarian: the peasantry constitutes the great majority of the population. This is the least productive and most fragile sector of all, where productivity is extremely limited, and which functions at barely survival level.
— The urban masses are not better off; they suffer from job insecurity, harsh working conditions, and from the collapse of the guild system.
— The bourgeoisie, still undefined, and consisting of an elite of well-off traders and professionals is the rising power of the times, very active in the political movements that lead to the French Revolution and in the economic sectors that will realize the Industrial Revolution.
— The French Revolution brings them to power for the first time. The revolution is not really about the masses, but rather about a transformation of the elite and a transfer of power from the privileged estates to the economically and professionally powerful elites.
— The Industrial Revolution confirms this transformation, empowering the entrepreneurs who are able to catch up with this boom. The spreading of industry and especially of the factory system also transforms the lower classes, incorporating part of the agrarian and urban masses into the new order.
— This is a working class in the making, but it will take some time until the workers are able to associate, form unions, and become a significant political force. For decades, they will have to adapt to the harsh and competitive working conditions that characterize the system, from child labor to the overexploitation of female workers.
— The Industrial Revolution completely changes the material culture of the time, introducing cheaper and more resistant materials, durable consumer goods, a wide variety of new services, such as railroad and steamship transportation.
— Most dramatically, the Industrial Revolution will be able to gradually invert the relationship between production and demand. Until then, production depended on a modest and irregular demand. Now, production is going to be able to create its own demand, the beginning of consumerism as we know it.
— The political climate of the early nineteenth century is geared towards conservatism. As a result, until the 1830s, the liberal and more radical political actors join forces against the reactionary and conservative establishment.
— However, 1848 (the Springtime of Peoples) constitutes a major breaking point, as the bourgeoisie, more or less victorious since the revolutions of 1830, shifts its allegiance from opposition to conservatism, from revolution to status quo.
— The maturation of the Industrial Revolution by the mid-nineteenth century further confirms bourgeois power. Even the lower classes fall for the attraction of the cult of progress, of falling prices, and rising wages.
— The urban environment is revolutionized by these changes. The cities are transformed by urbanization: wide boulevards, apartment houses, department stores, theaters, cafés, hotels, street lighting, urban transports cater to the needs of a growing population of upper- and lower-middle-class urban dwellers.
— Even the peasantry, gradually marginalized by the growing industrial and service sectors, is transformed by an increasing mechanization and commercialization of agriculture.
— Finally, not to be forgotten, the cultural and ideological transformations of society during the period. The rise of bourgeois culture and the adoption of most of its values by the majority of the population is one of the most striking phenomena in this respect.
— More importantly, however, mass education, conducted as a means of “civilizing the masses” and turning them into citizens is probably the greatest achievement of the period, which eventually wipes out the remnants of traditional values and identities, from languages and dialects to beliefs and allegiances, sacrificed to the modernity of the nation state.

Outline of the April 13th Lecture / E. Eldem

"Latecomers: Bismarck and Garibaldi"

Important points to remember:

— The power of nationalism as the dominant ideology for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries;
— The origins of ‘political’ or ‘French’ nationalism in the French Revolution: an ideology based on the concept of citizenship and participation in the res publica, and of a voluntarist perception of becoming a member of the nation through civic rights and duties;
— The alternative form of nationalism defined as ‘German’ or ‘cultural’ nationalism, whereby the nation is defined in terms of ‘objective,’ cultural, or historical criteria: language, race, ethnic origin, common history, culture, blood, lineage…
— The realization that none of these two models exist in ‘pure’ form, a typical example being Turkish nationalism, which is heavily inspired by the French tradition (Ne mutlu Türküm diyene…), but eventually shows a greater propensity to resort to ‘German’ criteria of definition;
— Nationalism in its ‘French’ version, inspired by the French Revolution, tends to be a ‘progressive’ force until the mid-nineteenth century, meaning that it is mostly associated with liberal ideology, as represented mainly by the bourgeoisie and the lower middle classes.
— Importance of Rousseau and Romanticism in the formation of nationalist ideology. The Enlightenment thinkers were more concerned with the individual; Rousseau brings forth the notion of the sovereign will, to which individual interest can be sacrificed.
— 1848 (the Springtime of Peoples) a major breaking point in the ideological outlook of Europe. Until then most revolutions (1789, 1830) are led by the bourgeoisie; however, in 1848 a split occurs within the revolutionary elites, as the bourgeoisie opts for the preservation of the status quo, while the radicals and the rising working class continue to oppose the system.
— This shift in alliances is also felt at an ideological level: nationalism, until then the ideology of change, is gradually co-opted by the state itself and becomes an element of conservative and even repressive policy.
— A typical example is the way in which Napoleon III builds his political power on the idea of material progress and state-sponsored nationalism, transforming the Republic (1848) into an Empire (1852) through a combination of populism and political repression.
— German nationalism as a political project will develop only in the second half of the century. Initially it is mostly limited to intellectual and romantic constructs (Fichte, Hegel…) based on language, folklore, art, and culture.
— There are many obstacles to the formation of a German state, most notably a fragmented political landscape with two powers competing for leadership: Austria and Prussia.
— Bismarck will be the first to move from abstraction to reality by promoting Prussia as the leader of a future German nation. To do so, he first eliminates Austria from the race, creating a conflict in which Austria is defeated (1866), then, leading a victorious campaign against France (1870).
— The German Reich (Empire) is thus constituted in 1871 and comprises all German states, except Austria. It soon becomes one of the Great Powers of the time, engaging in the race for colonies and contributing to the rising tension that would eventually lead to World War I.
— Italian unification (Risorgimento) followed a somewhat similar path, starting with romantic revolutionism, best illustrated by the role played by the poet Giuseppe Mazzini, and underground revolutionary movements (the Carbonari). After 1848, the movement gains momentum, especially under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, who was able to ‘conquer’ most of Italy. However, Garibaldi ends up entrusting the final mission of unification to Vittorio Emanuele, King of Piedmont and Sardinia, who thus becomes the first king of a unified Italy in 1861.

Outline of the April 27th Lecture / A. Ersoy

Imperialism and Colonialism

Imperialism: Vast modern and unprecedented system of exploitation, control and domination.

Colonialism (almost always a consequence of imperialism): implanting settlements on distant territories in an endeavor to domesticate, transform and reorder ruled societies.

Modern imperialism vs traditional “empire building”:

Old empires, usually tribute collecting entities, determined by ideologies of universal kingship, religion, and moved by motives such as territorial expansion, glory, plunder and conversion.
Imperialism begins with the emergence of modern global economy, and involves a new scale and conception of control and penetration (economical, political, cultural) – a power and influence that transcends the formal boundaries of the empire itself.

First phase of imperialism (Late 18th century to 1870s), the “entrepreneurial stage” – primary mover: private companies (ex: British East India Co.) – Britain emerges victorious with its superior capacity of financial management. Imperialist agenda shaped by the cherished ideal of “global free trade” – with a moral halo attached to the mission of “forcing open” world markets for a peaceful future. First stage of globalization achieved: the world becomes a vast hinterland reshaped by the particular needs and interests of Europe.

Second phase of imperialism (1870s to World War I), “New Imperialism” – Burgeoning trend, and brutal rivalry, among European powers for imperialist expansion and acquiring colonies (“the scramble for Africa”).

Determining factors behind the rise of New Imperialist rivalries:

i) Economical: unprecedented scale and aggressiveness of commercial enterprises – the age of “big business,” cartels and trusts. The advent of mass consumption and rising demands of spreading industrialism and the affluent society.
ii) Political: Competing nationalisms – imperialism as a hand-maiden of nation states (also challenged by nationalist resistance movements in the colonies). The age of mass politics and propaganda – the empire as ideological cement, promoting national prestige and boosting self-pride (“social imperialism”)
iii) Cultural: Common cultural atmosphere justifying and instigating imperialist expansion - informed by grand narratives of progress and superiority. The imperialist fantasy of the “civilizing mission” (Rudyard Kipling’s The White Man’s Burden)

Inherent “vulnerability” of empires and their global establishment: the inevitable presence “within” of the so called “inferior races,” (the Parisian suburbs) and the emergence of new and hybrid forms of knowledge (sub- and counter-cultures) – the post-colonial condition.

Outline of the April 18th Lecture / A. Ersoy

The Cult of Progress

“Progress” as a historically constituted, modern construct – A legacy of the Enlightenment informing modern conceptions of time (as continuous, linear, open-ended and directional development / as forward movement and improvement).

Advent of modern consciousness 18th and 19th centuries – profound reversal in the hierarchy of time – the future (rather than the past as tradition) becoming the center of authority and legitimation

Firm belief in the virtues of the future informed by an acute sense of change and rupture with the past (as organic continuities are irreversably severed with the rising prestige of secularized, rational knowledge)

Drastic change in the status and significance of Man – his traditional primacy as the center (and purpose) of the universe annihilated by a cold, impersonal Newtonian universe governed by overpowering cosmic forces – Man reduced to being a species.

Alternative models and strategies of thought that attempted to endow history with a new sense of purpose, continuity and directionality – now attuned to the premises of secularized knowledge. This new and secular vision of historical purpose and continuity is hinged upon the very idea of progress.

A new teleology emerged (a purposeful movement towards a predestined end): what moves and animates history is man himself (rather than a divine plan and authority). With his superior capacity of rational knowledge and reason, man takes destiny in his hands, and transforms the world around him towards greater perfection, towards a better and more sophisticated future. The modern narrative of progress becomes almost a secular religion or a cult; a grand explanatory model for every possible action and event.

By the nineteenth century, firmly entrenched as a concept, progress engendered diverse models and narratives of change: Friedrich Hegel’s (1770-1831) “historical philosophy” – Historical change as the story of the fulfillment of the “spiritual aim,” which is “complete freedom.”

Hegel’s three stages of the progressive unfolding of the spirit (based on the level of freedom achieved): The “Ancient world,” (which also encompasses the contemporary Orient) where only the tyrants are free, the “Medieval world,” where only a few (the nobility) enjoy freedom, and the “modern order,” where everybody enjoys freedom, made possible within what Hegel considers to be the most sophisticated form of social and political organization: the nation state.

The lasting legacy of Hegel’s theory: progress realized with the “dialectic movement of opposites,” where “conflict,” lies at the very center of change and improvement. Here, every force is coupled by its opposition, and every “thesis” at any point is matched by an “antithesis,” the clash of the thesis and the antithesis resolved by a stage of “synthesis.” History regarded as an open ended process of continuous “becoming,” a gradual, synthetic movement towards more articulate ideas and formulations that shape and animate the world.

Hegelian determinism and dialectics constitutes a lasting contribution to human thought, informing many theories of change, as well as agendas of national, political progress, emancipation and superiority: Marxist vision of history, the positivistic philosophy of A. Comte (1798-1857), who, like Hegel, proposed a three-stage model of historical progress that culminated with the “positive stage of thought”.

In the area of natural sciences, it was the idea of progress that made possible the emergence of Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Following the publication of the Origin of the Species in 1859, Darwin’s views on evolution, natural selection, and “the survival of the fittest” were taken out of context by policy makers (for instance in the colonies) and appropriated into myriad theories of “social Darwinism.”

In all, the modern vision of time, based on the idea of progress (with its open ended, anti-establishment drive favoring open-ended, forward movement), carried a critical and emancipatory potential, and had imprints on many “progressive” movements throughout the modern era, such as the French Revolution, the civil rights and feminist movements or anti-colonialism.

Yet, it was also the “grand narratives of progress” (and their accompanying social projects) that harnessed utterly catastrophic, oppressive or violent results for the world (ecological disasters) and humanity (the idea of total war, the Holocaust).