Final Exam Places / June 2, 15:00

TB 310 ACAR-BELBER

TB 260 BERBEROĞLU-ÇAPAR

TB 240 ÇAR-DİKMEN

M 1100 DİNÇ-HALİLOĞLU

PARK 1 HIZLIKAN-ONAY

GYM ONGUN- TANHAN

PARK 2 TANRINIAN-ZÜLFİKAR

Outline of the April 25th Lecture / E. Eldem

"The Triumphant Bourgeoisie"

Important points to remember:

— The bourgeoisie is certainly triumphant in the nineteenth century, and probably still is to this day.
— The term has enormously changed throughout time, from town dweller (burgher) in the Middle Ages to a socio-economic class in the nineteenth century.
— It is worth noting that it has generally come with a negative connotation: not being noble under the ancient régime; taking part in the economic exploitation of the working class and representing political conservatism in modern times.
— Hardly presented as an ideal: in ancient régime France, the bourgeois are aspiring for noble status, rather than for bourgeois power (Molière’s Le bourgeois gentilhomme (The Bourgeois Gentleman).
— The French Revolution finally empowers them, in the name of the people. It is the beginning of a new era that will be marked by the rise of bourgeois power as an opposition to aristocratic elites.
— The revolutionary role played by the bourgeoisie continues well into the 1830s, with this group leading most of the popular movements against the establishment.
— Gradually, however, as they acquire more power and become the establishment, the bourgeois will start moving on the conservative side and become defenders of the status quo.
— Their power increases even more thanks to the combined effects of the Industrial Revolution in which they play a predominant role and of the rise of the ‘new’ professions, in education, law, medicine, engineering…
— The growing power of the bourgeoisie brings with it the rise of a new culture, based on moral values, taste, beliefs, behavior directly influenced by the bourgeoisie. Ideologically speaking, the bourgeoisie in the nineteenth century is generally identified with political conservatism, the defense of capitalist policies, and economic liberalism.
— Much of bourgeois culture is inspired from an old desire to emulate (imitate) the nobility in terms of consumption and display of wealth, often resulting in a showiness that can develop into outright kitsch.
— At the same time, however, it wishes to adopt moral values often supposed to be absent from the nobility. Family values, intimacy, moral righteousness, religious fervor are typical examples of such concerns.
— Interestingly, bourgeois power in the nineteenth century is such that the bourgeois cultural and moral model will have to be taken up by the other classes, from the very top (Queen Victoria) to the very bottom (aspiring working class).
— Bourgeois culture also freezes gender roles by assigning public/active domains to men and domestic/passive concerns to women, much in the way they will remain to this day.
— The bourgeoisie is also keen on exporting and imposing its values on other classes, most notably the lower classes. The same is true of its treatment of marginal groups (the poor, the mentally ill, the criminal), against whom repressive and punitive measures will be undertaken (hardworking and subdued subalterns, respectful and deserving poor, repenting and reformed criminals…)
— Most of these traits appear in the cultural and educational artifacts of the time. Photography, a new technology, makes it possible to capture the dignity, discipline, austerity, affluence, or love within the family, sometimes even including deceased family members…
— Children’s books reproduce these values by illustrating stories and situations that serve as an example to the young readers who are exposed to this material.

Outline of the April 20th Lecture / E. Eldem

"Society Transformed: Peasants, Workers, Consumers, and Capitalists"

Important points to remember:

— The nineteenth century introduces a number of radical changes as a consequence of the French Revolution and the ongoing Industrial Revolution.
— This is the end of the ancient régime, in political, social, and economic terms, and the beginning of a new era that prefigures modernity as we know it.
— Ancien régime society is overwhelmingly agrarian: the peasantry constitutes the great majority of the population. This is the least productive and most fragile sector of all, where productivity is extremely limited, and which functions at barely survival level.
— The urban masses are not better off; they suffer from job insecurity, harsh working conditions, and from the collapse of the guild system.
— The bourgeoisie, still undefined, and consisting of an elite of well-off traders and professionals is the rising power of the times, very active in the political movements that lead to the French Revolution and in the economic sectors that will realize the Industrial Revolution.
— The French Revolution brings them to power for the first time. The revolution is not really about the masses, but rather about a transformation of the elite and a transfer of power from the privileged estates to the economically and professionally powerful elites.
— The Industrial Revolution confirms this transformation, empowering the entrepreneurs who are able to catch up with this boom. The spreading of industry and especially of the factory system also transforms the lower classes, incorporating part of the agrarian and urban masses into the new order.
— This is a working class in the making, but it will take some time until the workers are able to associate, form unions, and become a significant political force. For decades, they will have to adapt to the harsh and competitive working conditions that characterize the system, from child labor to the overexploitation of female workers.
— The Industrial Revolution completely changes the material culture of the time, introducing cheaper and more resistant materials, durable consumer goods, a wide variety of new services, such as railroad and steamship transportation.
— Most dramatically, the Industrial Revolution will be able to gradually invert the relationship between production and demand. Until then, production depended on a modest and irregular demand. Now, production is going to be able to create its own demand, the beginning of consumerism as we know it.
— The political climate of the early nineteenth century is geared towards conservatism. As a result, until the 1830s, the liberal and more radical political actors join forces against the reactionary and conservative establishment.
— However, 1848 (the Springtime of Peoples) constitutes a major breaking point, as the bourgeoisie, more or less victorious since the revolutions of 1830, shifts its allegiance from opposition to conservatism, from revolution to status quo.
— The maturation of the Industrial Revolution by the mid-nineteenth century further confirms bourgeois power. Even the lower classes fall for the attraction of the cult of progress, of falling prices, and rising wages.
— The urban environment is revolutionized by these changes. The cities are transformed by urbanization: wide boulevards, apartment houses, department stores, theaters, cafés, hotels, street lighting, urban transports cater to the needs of a growing population of upper- and lower-middle-class urban dwellers.
— Even the peasantry, gradually marginalized by the growing industrial and service sectors, is transformed by an increasing mechanization and commercialization of agriculture.
— Finally, not to be forgotten, the cultural and ideological transformations of society during the period. The rise of bourgeois culture and the adoption of most of its values by the majority of the population is one of the most striking phenomena in this respect.
— More importantly, however, mass education, conducted as a means of “civilizing the masses” and turning them into citizens is probably the greatest achievement of the period, which eventually wipes out the remnants of traditional values and identities, from languages and dialects to beliefs and allegiances, sacrificed to the modernity of the nation state.

Outline of the April 13th Lecture / E. Eldem

"Latecomers: Bismarck and Garibaldi"

Important points to remember:

— The power of nationalism as the dominant ideology for the nineteenth and twentieth centuries;
— The origins of ‘political’ or ‘French’ nationalism in the French Revolution: an ideology based on the concept of citizenship and participation in the res publica, and of a voluntarist perception of becoming a member of the nation through civic rights and duties;
— The alternative form of nationalism defined as ‘German’ or ‘cultural’ nationalism, whereby the nation is defined in terms of ‘objective,’ cultural, or historical criteria: language, race, ethnic origin, common history, culture, blood, lineage…
— The realization that none of these two models exist in ‘pure’ form, a typical example being Turkish nationalism, which is heavily inspired by the French tradition (Ne mutlu Türküm diyene…), but eventually shows a greater propensity to resort to ‘German’ criteria of definition;
— Nationalism in its ‘French’ version, inspired by the French Revolution, tends to be a ‘progressive’ force until the mid-nineteenth century, meaning that it is mostly associated with liberal ideology, as represented mainly by the bourgeoisie and the lower middle classes.
— Importance of Rousseau and Romanticism in the formation of nationalist ideology. The Enlightenment thinkers were more concerned with the individual; Rousseau brings forth the notion of the sovereign will, to which individual interest can be sacrificed.
— 1848 (the Springtime of Peoples) a major breaking point in the ideological outlook of Europe. Until then most revolutions (1789, 1830) are led by the bourgeoisie; however, in 1848 a split occurs within the revolutionary elites, as the bourgeoisie opts for the preservation of the status quo, while the radicals and the rising working class continue to oppose the system.
— This shift in alliances is also felt at an ideological level: nationalism, until then the ideology of change, is gradually co-opted by the state itself and becomes an element of conservative and even repressive policy.
— A typical example is the way in which Napoleon III builds his political power on the idea of material progress and state-sponsored nationalism, transforming the Republic (1848) into an Empire (1852) through a combination of populism and political repression.
— German nationalism as a political project will develop only in the second half of the century. Initially it is mostly limited to intellectual and romantic constructs (Fichte, Hegel…) based on language, folklore, art, and culture.
— There are many obstacles to the formation of a German state, most notably a fragmented political landscape with two powers competing for leadership: Austria and Prussia.
— Bismarck will be the first to move from abstraction to reality by promoting Prussia as the leader of a future German nation. To do so, he first eliminates Austria from the race, creating a conflict in which Austria is defeated (1866), then, leading a victorious campaign against France (1870).
— The German Reich (Empire) is thus constituted in 1871 and comprises all German states, except Austria. It soon becomes one of the Great Powers of the time, engaging in the race for colonies and contributing to the rising tension that would eventually lead to World War I.
— Italian unification (Risorgimento) followed a somewhat similar path, starting with romantic revolutionism, best illustrated by the role played by the poet Giuseppe Mazzini, and underground revolutionary movements (the Carbonari). After 1848, the movement gains momentum, especially under the leadership of Giuseppe Garibaldi, who was able to ‘conquer’ most of Italy. However, Garibaldi ends up entrusting the final mission of unification to Vittorio Emanuele, King of Piedmont and Sardinia, who thus becomes the first king of a unified Italy in 1861.

Outline of the April 27th Lecture / A. Ersoy

Imperialism and Colonialism

Imperialism: Vast modern and unprecedented system of exploitation, control and domination.

Colonialism (almost always a consequence of imperialism): implanting settlements on distant territories in an endeavor to domesticate, transform and reorder ruled societies.

Modern imperialism vs traditional “empire building”:

Old empires, usually tribute collecting entities, determined by ideologies of universal kingship, religion, and moved by motives such as territorial expansion, glory, plunder and conversion.
Imperialism begins with the emergence of modern global economy, and involves a new scale and conception of control and penetration (economical, political, cultural) – a power and influence that transcends the formal boundaries of the empire itself.

First phase of imperialism (Late 18th century to 1870s), the “entrepreneurial stage” – primary mover: private companies (ex: British East India Co.) – Britain emerges victorious with its superior capacity of financial management. Imperialist agenda shaped by the cherished ideal of “global free trade” – with a moral halo attached to the mission of “forcing open” world markets for a peaceful future. First stage of globalization achieved: the world becomes a vast hinterland reshaped by the particular needs and interests of Europe.

Second phase of imperialism (1870s to World War I), “New Imperialism” – Burgeoning trend, and brutal rivalry, among European powers for imperialist expansion and acquiring colonies (“the scramble for Africa”).

Determining factors behind the rise of New Imperialist rivalries:

i) Economical: unprecedented scale and aggressiveness of commercial enterprises – the age of “big business,” cartels and trusts. The advent of mass consumption and rising demands of spreading industrialism and the affluent society.
ii) Political: Competing nationalisms – imperialism as a hand-maiden of nation states (also challenged by nationalist resistance movements in the colonies). The age of mass politics and propaganda – the empire as ideological cement, promoting national prestige and boosting self-pride (“social imperialism”)
iii) Cultural: Common cultural atmosphere justifying and instigating imperialist expansion - informed by grand narratives of progress and superiority. The imperialist fantasy of the “civilizing mission” (Rudyard Kipling’s The White Man’s Burden)

Inherent “vulnerability” of empires and their global establishment: the inevitable presence “within” of the so called “inferior races,” (the Parisian suburbs) and the emergence of new and hybrid forms of knowledge (sub- and counter-cultures) – the post-colonial condition.

Outline of the April 18th Lecture / A. Ersoy

The Cult of Progress

“Progress” as a historically constituted, modern construct – A legacy of the Enlightenment informing modern conceptions of time (as continuous, linear, open-ended and directional development / as forward movement and improvement).

Advent of modern consciousness 18th and 19th centuries – profound reversal in the hierarchy of time – the future (rather than the past as tradition) becoming the center of authority and legitimation

Firm belief in the virtues of the future informed by an acute sense of change and rupture with the past (as organic continuities are irreversably severed with the rising prestige of secularized, rational knowledge)

Drastic change in the status and significance of Man – his traditional primacy as the center (and purpose) of the universe annihilated by a cold, impersonal Newtonian universe governed by overpowering cosmic forces – Man reduced to being a species.

Alternative models and strategies of thought that attempted to endow history with a new sense of purpose, continuity and directionality – now attuned to the premises of secularized knowledge. This new and secular vision of historical purpose and continuity is hinged upon the very idea of progress.

A new teleology emerged (a purposeful movement towards a predestined end): what moves and animates history is man himself (rather than a divine plan and authority). With his superior capacity of rational knowledge and reason, man takes destiny in his hands, and transforms the world around him towards greater perfection, towards a better and more sophisticated future. The modern narrative of progress becomes almost a secular religion or a cult; a grand explanatory model for every possible action and event.

By the nineteenth century, firmly entrenched as a concept, progress engendered diverse models and narratives of change: Friedrich Hegel’s (1770-1831) “historical philosophy” – Historical change as the story of the fulfillment of the “spiritual aim,” which is “complete freedom.”

Hegel’s three stages of the progressive unfolding of the spirit (based on the level of freedom achieved): The “Ancient world,” (which also encompasses the contemporary Orient) where only the tyrants are free, the “Medieval world,” where only a few (the nobility) enjoy freedom, and the “modern order,” where everybody enjoys freedom, made possible within what Hegel considers to be the most sophisticated form of social and political organization: the nation state.

The lasting legacy of Hegel’s theory: progress realized with the “dialectic movement of opposites,” where “conflict,” lies at the very center of change and improvement. Here, every force is coupled by its opposition, and every “thesis” at any point is matched by an “antithesis,” the clash of the thesis and the antithesis resolved by a stage of “synthesis.” History regarded as an open ended process of continuous “becoming,” a gradual, synthetic movement towards more articulate ideas and formulations that shape and animate the world.

Hegelian determinism and dialectics constitutes a lasting contribution to human thought, informing many theories of change, as well as agendas of national, political progress, emancipation and superiority: Marxist vision of history, the positivistic philosophy of A. Comte (1798-1857), who, like Hegel, proposed a three-stage model of historical progress that culminated with the “positive stage of thought”.

In the area of natural sciences, it was the idea of progress that made possible the emergence of Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection. Following the publication of the Origin of the Species in 1859, Darwin’s views on evolution, natural selection, and “the survival of the fittest” were taken out of context by policy makers (for instance in the colonies) and appropriated into myriad theories of “social Darwinism.”

In all, the modern vision of time, based on the idea of progress (with its open ended, anti-establishment drive favoring open-ended, forward movement), carried a critical and emancipatory potential, and had imprints on many “progressive” movements throughout the modern era, such as the French Revolution, the civil rights and feminist movements or anti-colonialism.

Yet, it was also the “grand narratives of progress” (and their accompanying social projects) that harnessed utterly catastrophic, oppressive or violent results for the world (ecological disasters) and humanity (the idea of total war, the Holocaust).

Outline of the May 18th Lecture / V. Kechriotis

Nations and Nationalism

Two kinds of nationalism
- Hans Kohn, The idea of nationalism, 1944
- western/eastern, civic/ethnic, territorial/racial, citizen/ people,
present/past, politics/culture, French/ German, ius solis/, ius sanguinis.
- French revolution, nation in arms.
- German resistance against Napoleonic invasion.

Reflecting on nationalism
- 1848 uprisings-The defeat of liberal nationalism.
- Marx-Engels: division between historic and non-historic nations.
- Objective criteria of nation-formation, population, territory, market for the development of labor force.
- The small nations should be eliminated for the sake of progress and revolution.

Nationalism turns conservative
- The state monopolised national narrative: state sponsored nationalism
- Belated nationalisms: Italian Unification (Risorgimento) – 1861, German Unification 1871, (Bismarck)
- Liberalism supported by powerful bourgeoisie leads to pariamentary democracy (England).
- Absence of an autonoums bourgeoise leads to authoritarianism (Germany).

Different Approaches to nationalism
- Jules Michelet, 1867, History of the French Revolution
- He reaffirms the nation as a fraternity between equals (J.J.Rouseau).
- Patriotism becomes a new religion and the progressive force of European history.
- After the French-German war in 1870, Ernest Renan, 1882, What is a Nation?
- Nation as voluntary historical solidarity is opposed to the organic ethno-linguistic unity,
- Social and phsycological features, the shared experiences and common memories.
- Lord Acton, 1862, Nationality.
- He defends the English concept of liberal nationality and rejects the French concept of racial collective nationality.
- Multinational Empires are superior to nations. Nation is the product of state absolutism.
- Maurice Barrès. Action Française, 1898, royalist movement founded after the Dreyfus affair & revitilization of left-wing criticism launched by Emile Zola’s ‘J’accuse’ (I accuse).
- Nation as an organic entity of blood and soil.
- Max Weber, 1914, Economy and Society, the nations are conflict groups and bearers of unique cultural values which are superior exactly because they are unique.
- State and nation need each other, only political action can transform an ethnic community to a nation.

National movements in the Balkans
- 1804/ 1815 Serbian uprising – 1830 autonomy.
- 1821 Greek uprising – 1830 independence.
- 1859 Unification of Wallachia and Moldavia principalities into Romania.
- 1870 Bulgarian Exarchate.
- 1878 Berlin Conference (Independent Serbia/Romania/Montenegro, Autonomous Bulgaria)
- Eastern Question and the balance of powers.
- Local elites disenchanted from their exclusion from the Ottoman administration.
- From intermediaries they turn to national leaders.
- Intensive interaction with European educational and commercial network.
-Western Imperialism.

Characteristics of the Balkan states
- Secular nationalism is replaced by national religion (millet system)
- Agrarian societies, minimal urbanization, no industry.
- Should modernization be western oriented or respond to the needs of the peasantry?
- Nation building: urban elites use mechanisms such as education, military, judiciary in order to integrate the peasantry to the nation.
- Irredentism, (claim of territory outside the boundaries of the state on the grounds that this populations belong to our nation) might consume resources but it galvanizes national consciousness by providing a vision for the future (Great Idea).
- Revolutionaries vs evolutionists (Independence vs Dualism).
- Masses in to politics, from romantic reference to the past to modern vision for the future.
- Dynamism, energy, masculinity, survival of the most powerful.
- Middle classes claim their participation and nationalism will provide them with the means to achieve this participation.

Turn of the Century Culmination of Nationalism
- Macedonian Struggle (Greek, Serbian, Bulgarian. Macedonian nationalism)
- Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organisation (IMRO).
- Macedonian Committee in Sofia and in Athens
- Iliden uprising, 1903 and Murzsteg Reforms.
- Young Turk movement.
- Balkan Wars 1912-1913.

Uprising against the Old Regime
- Constitutional and other movements- Iran 1905-1911, Russia 1905, Greece, 1909
- Young Turks Ittihat ve Terakki Cemiyeti (Committee of Union and Progress, CUP).
- 23 July 1908, the constitution is restored.
- Integrity of the Empire, subjects into citizens, removal of ethnoeligious privileges, liberalism, positivism, equality (müsavat), fraternity (uhuvvet), freedom (hürriyet) and justice (adalet).
- Balkan Wars: The proclamation of the Balkan nations against the Empire will be based on religion whereas the Empire will invite the citizens to fight for the Constitutional Motherland.
- The terns have been reversed.