Study Sheet for February 21th and March 14th Lectures / S. Esenbel

l. Zheng He Expeditions

Zheng He as a Chinese Muslim Eunuch

Yung Lo Emperor



Silk Road and Arab Sea Trade

Mongol World Empire and globalization

Marco Polo Journey to China

Ibn Batuta Journey to Asia



Historical Significance of the Chinese Expeditions Compared with the Age of Discovery by Europeans


2. Ming Chinese Bureaucracy and Tokugawa Centralized Feudalism

Voltaire and the Enlightenment View of Chinese Bureaucratic Empire

Ming Bureaucracy

State Examinations

Autocracy of the Ming Emperor

Tokugawa Centralized Feudalism

Shoguns and the Bakufu government

Local autonomy of Domains

Announcement / Film Feature

Merchant of Venice (this time the recent version with Al Pacino and Jeremy Irons) will be shown on Friday, March 30 in the usual place (GKM).

Outline of the March 19th Lecture / D. Terzioğlu

Absolutism Challenged: The English Revolution


1. England under the early Stuarts: an overview

(Important terms: gentry; House of Lord, House of Commons; common law; Anglicans, Puritans)

2. Causes of the constitutional crisis and the civil war

1. Fiscal
2. Religious
3. Constitutional

3. From constitutional crisis to the “puritan republic”

Petition of Right (1628)
Short Parliament (1640)
Long Parliament (1640-2)
Civil War (1642-6)
“The Puritan Republic” (1649-1660)
Cromwellian Protectorate (1653-1660)

4. Restoration and the Glorious Revolution

(Important terms: Whigs and Tories; Test Act)

Monarchy triumphant: the reign of Charles II (1649/1660-1685)
Crisis anew: the reign of James II (1685-8)
The Glorious Revolution (1688-9)

5. A comparison between England and France

Royal agendas and ideologies
Social base of the opposition to absolutism
Ideological base of the opposition to absolutism: John Locke and the Two Treatises on Government

Outline of the March 16th Lecture / D. Terzioğlu

Absolutism at its peak: France under Louis XIV

1. France before Louis XIV

The French monarchical tradition
Limits to royal authority
Precursors to Louis XIV: Henry IV, Richelieu, Mazarin
Setback: the Fronde (1649-1652)

2. The personal rule of Louis XIV (1661-1715)

Policies towards the parlements
Cooptation of “nobility of the sword”
Administration mainly in the hands of “nobility of the robe”
Mercantilist policies (Colbert)
Modernization of army (Louvois and Vauban)
Justifies absolutist rule through “divine right of kings” (Bossuet)
Active patronage of arts and letters to refashion royal image
More controversial aspects of Louis’s absolutism:
Religious intolerance: Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685); suppression of Jansenism
Wars and fiscal pressures

3. The reception of Louis XIV

Montesquieu, Persian Letters (1721)
Voltaire, The Age of Louis XIV (1750)

Announcement / Change in Schedule:

March 21 and 23 lectures of Prof. Edhem Eldem will be given by Asst. Prof. Yavuz Selim Karakışla.

Outline of the March 12th Lecture / M. Toksöz

OTTOMAN SAFAVID MUGHAL RULE

Three cases of state building in a geography from western Anatolia to the east of South Asia

Similarities in their formation:

- Relying on military bureaucracies inspired by the traditions of Turco-Mongol steppe peoples and Islam
- Adopting economic policies based on agriculture that fed the military
- Ruling over or conquering multi-ethnic and/or multi-religious societies
- Depending on the legitimacy of the ruler
- Developing after frontier principalities, the Ottoman Principality, the İlkhans and the Delhi Sultanate, from decentralized formations to central dynastic rule
- Adapting to the city-based agricultural societies

Warrior aristocracies in multi-faceted environments on geographies of co-existence in a chaotic era turning into ruling dynasties with armies, land tenure systems and central administration.

Religious basis of Sufism. Emergence of shiisim with the Safavids.

IMPORTANT ANNOUNCEMENT:
CHANGE OF LECTURE HALL
FOR 16 MARCH ONLY
The lecture on 16 March will be at the GYM.
The film scheduled for 16 March
will be shown on 23 March at the usual place (GKM)

Outline of the March 5th Lecture / L. Babaoğlu

REFORMATION AND SOCIETY

Gender, family, literacy, charity, elite vs. popular culture

The interaction between society and culture and the balance between tradition and innovation during the Reformation is the subject of this lecture.

Q- How did the Reformation alter the order of society?
Q- How did the religious experience, the new style of worship, effect the traditional meaning system?

The fact that we are dealing not with a monolithic cultural system but with different intersecting cultures makes the issue even more complicated.

Culture; in the broad sense refers to all aspects of the way in which a society relates to and makes sense of the world.
We may define culture; as patterns of behaviour and belief, as assumptions, value sustems and expectations.
We may define society; as an integration of social units which provide their members with tradition and identity.
The members of each social order belong to and participate in a meaningful collectivity respectively. This is the pattern how people define themselves (as a member of a family, of a community, of a group, etc.).
However, the particiants in intersecting classes have different even conflicting founding assumptions, value systems and expectations.

Within this context, we will look at the change of social patterns and practices.


FAMILY

Q- Is there a connection between the changes in the religious doctrine and the changes in the organization of the family.?

Steven Ozment, in his book The Ancestors (2001), looks at the premodern and preindustrial societies and compares them with the modern family.
Ozment, defines family; as “an organization of discrete individuals interacting with one another in a sui generis familial world created by and large by that interaction.”
According to Ozment beneath the external structure and organization of a family exists the private life of individuals within a household.
The houshold maybe composed of extended families or nuclear families. Another important question is about the relations between husband and wife, and parents and children.





Lawrence Stone, in his book The Family, Sex and Marriage in England 1500-1800 (1990),
Posits three overlapping chronological periods, each of which presented a predominant family type.
1) The open lineage family 1450-1630.
2) The restricted patriarchal nuclear family 1550-1700
3) The closed domestic nuclear family.


Stone, analysis each type according the composition of the family and the existing relations among the members of the family and the child rearing practices.

Ozment provides us with more detailed accounts concentrating on the concept of marriage. According to him the Protestant Reformation supplied a new concept of marriage (Luther legalized clerical marriage).

GENDER

The Protestans rejected ancient and medieval portrayals of women as physically, mentally amd morally inferior to males.
Lutherans insisted on the on the husband’s biblically commanded headship, but they also praised intellectual cameradarie between husbands and wifes and thought a pragmatic equality within marriage. According to Ozment, the legal innovation of divorce and remarriage had farreaching consequences fort the future equality of the sexes.
Natalie Zemon Davis, in her book Society and Culture in Early Modern France (1987),
Gives us a new definition of marriage and accepts the changes but she argues that the changed roles of women within life, liturgy, symbolism and the organization of the reformed Church are more important in illuminating the changing relations within the family.
Her search on the judicial records and private contracts reveal that the Mediaval women were beter off compared with the Early Modern women.
With the Reformation a new image of the Christian women was presented in the Calvinist popular literature. Women should read the Bible, in order to be able to provide companianship to their husbands at home and to educate their children about good behavior. But they had no voice concerning the organization of the institution of the Church and religious experience.
Although there were differences among women of varried social classes the converted males gained more in religious aspects than the converted females.


LITERACY

According to Davis, the urban elite women had at least a vernacular education usually by private tutors. The non-noble city women were rarely educated.
Protestantism made efforts to encourage literacy, even poor girls in orphanages were educated. But although in the populous middle rank of urban society, both male and female, literacy may have risen from the mid 15.century under the impact of economic growth and the invention of printing, literacy of the men increased much more than that of the women.





CHARITY

The tradition of alms giving as a religious obligation underwent changes as well. Yet it is important to note that the novelties concerning charity were introduced by a coalition of Catholic and Protestant notables and not by the clerics. The leaders of the Church were theoretically protectors of the poor but practically this was not the case.
The rising poverty and problems coming along with it threatened the total population of the cities. Thus the social forces shaped the city dwellers’ attitudes and actions.

Based on brotherly love, according to the Bible, it was (is) among the duties of the faithful that they care for their neighbours. This was accepted as a path to their salvation.
And the strong believers who wanted to avoid thisworldly pleasures and materialism led an ascetic life depending on this alms giving tradition.

The demographic recoveries in urban centers had a negative impact on poverty. Which led to a change of treatment of poverty. Due to the changing urban conditions the increase of immigration and furthermore the decline in death rates let the population rise to 45000s even to 60000s. Parallely the growing numbers of the poor population led to urban disorder, misery, and illness. That the riots were harshly punished only worsened the sitaution. Finally, to eliminate begging and starvation and to alter these conditions a wellfare and health reform was introduced. An administration of laymen was formed who took certain measures.
As an outcome begging was prohibited and alms giving was brought under a central control. It turned out that centralization had economic and social advantages.
What was realized was a novel conception of charity. Plus a new conception of labor.

According to Protestantism all men can and should live the religion and men live such a life if they impoly their calling, their life task, their place in this world.
Protestant asceticism, as Max Weber puts it in his book, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism (1904/05), was a worldly asceticism and had to replace monastic asceticism which was not a means of justification. In contrast labour in a calling appeared to Luther as the outward expression of brotherly love.
To repeat, a life pleasing to God and obedient to the divine law was to be lived in the ordinary occupation of men.
Thus labor became a religious duty and profit was not something to be ashamed of, on the contrary, it was cherished.

Outline of the March 2nd Lecture / L. Babaoğlu

REFORMATION AND COUNTER REFORMATION:
CHANGE IN RELIGIOUS CULTURE

- Definition of the Reformation, A movement in religion and thelogy; a split in Christian
belief .

- Causes of the Reformation;

a) Concerning the general historical context of 16. century Europe : The impact of the
Renaissance, the impact of the discoveries, the rise of the capitalistic mode of production,
the growth of national consciousness

b) Concerning the history of the Christian religion.: Why and how did the early 16.century
upheavals bring about a reformation?

- The theological disputes of the Reformation:

The corruption and abuses of the Catholic church.

Sales of dispansations: Exemption from law of the church, e.g., fasting.
Sales of indulgences: Forgiveness of the guilt created by the sin.
However, according to the Christian belief, the faithful should earn –and not buy- salvation.. Forgiveness should be gained by prayer and good Works.

- The outcome of the Reformation: The religious unity of Western Europe was broken. The Medieval church lost its authority concerning spiritual matters as well as thisworldly matters.


The theological doctrines:

1) The Doctrine of Justification by Faith;
Or the theology by St: paul (3-64 AD); Faith in Jesus colud bring men salvation.

2) The Doctrine of the Papal Supremacy;
Or the Doctrine of St. Peter: Jesus delegated his supernatural powers to St. Peter and gave him the keys to the kingdom of heaven. St. Peter went to Rome and became the first bishop of Rome. To this day, whoever is elected the Bishop of Rome continues the ministry given to St. Peter. So each new Bishop of Rome becomes the Pope, which means father.

3) The Doctrine of Predestination;
Or the Theology of St. Augustine (354-430 AD): Is based on the assumption that man is
sinful by nature. God created the world in the knowledge that some men would respond to
the divine invitation to lead holy lives and that others would resist to cooporate. In this
way God predestined those to be saved.

This doctrine placed man’s faith entirely in the hands of God and rendered the apparatus and the functions of the Church unnecessary.

4) The theologies of Peter Lombard and St. Thomas Acquinas (1225-74);
Men had a free will and had the power to choose good and evil. But he could not made the
choice unaided, thus he had to recieve the sacraments. Out of 7, the most important 4
were indispensible:

Baptism: Cleaning of previous sin
Penance: The sinner was absolved from guilt
Communion: Infusion of the Christian believer with the spirit of Christ.
Eucharist: Bread and wine symbolising the blood and flesh of Jesus.

According to the Petrine Doctrine, only members of the clergy had the authority to cooporate
with God in forgiving sin.

This doctrine strengthened the authority of the priesthood and was opposed by the reformers.


Martin Luther (1483-1546), prof. of theology at the University of Wittenberg, nailed in 1517 a paper of 95 thesis to the door of the castle church and attacked the practice of selling indulgences. Luther held that man was justified by faith alone. Faith was created by giving oneself to the message of the Gospel. Luther stressed religious individualism and rendered the hole apparatus of the church which was designed to mediate between man and God superfluous.
His views proved revolutionary and his reform signalled the end of the Medieval Church.

John Calvin (1509-1564), a French lawyer made the Protestant movement an international religious rebellion.
Like Luther, he stressed the sole authority of the Bible but he was much more radical. He rejected the entire ecclesiastical hierarchy and the ceremonial aspects of worship.
Both, Luther and Calvin, upheld the separation of church and state.

The Catholic response to the Reformation was the Counter Reformation, i.e., the church made a number of attempts to reform itself.

During 1540s the Church decided to undertake,1) a thorough examination of doctrines and practices; 2) the instruction and education of all Christians.
The desired effect was the reunification of the Church, but a separation of the doctrinal lines was drawn.

As an outcome, the religious unity of Western Europe was broken. The Protestant movement among other facts, gave birth to the Modern Era in the West.